There are many questions connected with WNV in wild mammals that, if addressed, would help elucidate their potential roles in WNV epidemiology. released NB-598 Maleate [13]. General, WNV antibodies had been determined in 5.2% from the artiodactyls tested, including 4.8% of 105 roe deer, 4.1% of 148 red deer (sp.), and 4.1% of 412 wild boars [13]. Sixty-nine of 545 outrageous boar from Spain got antibodies to flaviviruses, but hemolysis limited the amount of examples that might be examined by micro virus-neutralization exams (micro VNT) [14]. Just 21 from the 69 examples positive for flaviviruses had been further evaluated, which nine had been positive for WNV neutralizing antibodies with titers which range NB-598 Maleate from 1:10 to at least one 1:160 [14]. In another research from Spain, analyzing the antibody prevalence of WNV and related flaviviruses, serology was executed on a large number of outrageous ruminant examples (red deer, fallow deer, mouflon, and roe deer), and low antibody prevalence was noted, ranging from 3.4% for Rabbit polyclonal to NOD1 red deer to 0% for roe deer [16]. After accounting for possible coinfections, the overall WNV antibody prevalence was estimated to be 2.4% [16]. A third study conducted in Spain was based largely on red deer and wild boar. The overall WNV/flavivirus (the methods used could not definitively distinguish between the two categories) seroprevalence was estimated at approximately 4.04% for wild boar and 0.23% for red deer that were collected in multiple bioregions [15]. In addition, three of 100 privately-owned dromedary camels (spp.) have been noted in historical literature, and have been occasionally associated with severe disease [38,39,40]. Similarly to the low prevalence that was previously reported in New Jersey [39], a recent study reported a low WNV antibody prevalence in black bears (spp. and spp.). This is likely due to the fact that previous work has indicated that some tree squirrel species (e.g., fox squirrel and eastern gray squirrel [and have been previously assessed for WNV exposure, both of which have yielded evidence of antibody-positive individuals [29,48]. A recent study evaluated two species from these genera in highly peridomestic settings in Merida, Mexico. While many black rats (= 31) of African elephants ( em Loxodonta africana /em ) from the greater Congo basin had neutralizing antibodies against WNV, thereby indicating widespread exposure in this wild population [20]. 2.6. Select Surveys that Failed to Detect WNV Exposure in Wild Mammals While many studies have documented wild mammal WNV exposures during recent years, some have not detected exposures during targeted surveys. For example, a survey that included more than 100 mammals (primarily rodents) did not report any exposure NB-598 Maleate among the 12 species (some captive) tested in Trinidad [55]. Similarly, an arbovirus wildlife survey of rodents (n = 14) and bats (n = 146) collected in southern Mexico did not yield molecular evidence of WNV infection [56]. WNV antibodies were absent in 70 water buffalo ( em Bubalus bubalis /em ; presumably farmed) sampled in Turkey [57]. None of the serum samples from 49 wild Geoffroys spider monkeys ( em Ateles geoffroyi /em ) and four black howler monkeys ( em Alouatta pigra /em ) sampled in Mexico neutralized WNV [58]. Similarly, none of 49 wild and captive black-striped capuchins ( em Sapajus libidinosus /em ) and blond capuchins ( em S. flavius /em ) were antibody positive for WNV in Brazil [59]. Although serum samples collected from several wild mammal species in Ontario, Canada were positive for WNV antibodies, 0/22 samples from eastern gray squirrels and 0/1 samples from a red squirrel ( em Tamiasciurus hudsonicus /em ) were positive [33]. Considering that there was documented WNV activity in other wildlife species in this area during the same time-frame [33] and high seroprevalence rates have been observed in these tree squirrel species previously (often much higher than other mammals sampled in the same regions) [29,30], this result is surprising, but may be influenced by the presumably longer life-spans of the majority of the other mammal species tested. 3. Discussion Over the past several decades, human population growth and land use has led to increasingly common interactions with wildlife. Thus, understanding the role wild animals play in the epidemiology of zoonoses is critical in order mitigate the spread of disease to and from hosts of zoonotic pathogens. There are several questions associated with WNV in wild mammals that, if addressed, would help to elucidate their potential roles in WNV epidemiology. First, targeted serosurveys of wild mammals are still lacking from some regions. Indeed, during recent years, the need NB-598 Maleate for comprehensive mammalian WNV serosurveys to assess potential mammalian hosts in some regions has been proposed [60]. Aside from examining the possible mammalian involvement in WNV cycles, serosurveys of wild mammals can also provide a valuable and highly localized surveillance mechanism for WNV if key species are targeted. For example, monitoring tree squirrels for WNV has been proposed as a useful surveillance tool for WNV [29], especially when coupled with mark-recapture surveys [41]. Wild mammals could in this manner serve as sentinel species for regions with high outbreak potential. Second, more experimental infections.